History Of Computer

About L C D (Liquid Crystal Display)

LCD, What Is it?
A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat panel used for electronically displaying information such as text, images, and moving pictures. Its uses include monitors for computers, televisions, instrument panels, and other devices ranging from aircraft cockpit displays, to every-day consumer devices such as video players, gaming devices, clocks, watches, calculators, and telephones. Among its major features are its lightweight construction, its portability, and its ability to be produced in much larger screen sizes than are practical for the construction of cathode ray tube (CRT) display technology. Its low electrical power consumption enables it to be used in battery-powered electronic equipment. It is an electronically-modulated optical devicepixels filled with liquid crystals and arrayed in front of a light sourcebacklight) or reflector to produce images in color or monochrome. The earliest discoveries leading to the development of LCD technology date from 1888. By 2008, worldwide sales of televisions with LCD screens had surpassed the sale of CRT units.

Each pixel of an LCD typically consists of a layer of molecules aligned between two transparentelectrodes, and two polarizing filters, the axes of transmission of which are (in most of the cases) perpendicular to each other. With no actual liquid crystal between the polarizing filters, light passing through the first filter would be blocked by the second (crossed) polarizer.

The surface of the electrodes that are in contact with the liquid crystal material are treated so as to align the liquid crystal molecules in a particular direction. This treatment typically consists of a thin polymer layer that is unidirectionally rubbed using, for example, a cloth. The direction of the liquid crystal alignment is then defined by the direction of rubbing. Electrodes are made of a transparent conductor called Indium Tin Oxide (ITO).

Before applying an electric field, the orientation of the liquid crystal molecules is determined by the alignment at the surfaces of electrodes. In a twisted nematic device (still the most common liquid crystal device), the surface alignment directions at the two electrodes are perpendicular to each other, and so the molecules arrange themselves in a helical structure, or twist. This reduces the rotation of the polarization of the incident light, and the device appears grey. If the applied voltage is large enough, the liquid crystal molecules in the center of the layer are almost completely untwisted and the polarization of the incident light is not rotated as it passes through the liquid crystal layer. This light will then be mainly polarized perpendicular to the second filter, and thus be blocked and the pixel will appear black. By controlling the voltage applied across the liquid crystal layer in each pixel, light can be allowed to pass through in varying amounts thus constituting different levels of gray.

The optical effect of a twisted nematic device in the voltage-on state is far less dependent on variations in the device thickness than that in the voltage-off state. Because of this, these devices are usually operated between crossed polarizers such that they appear bright with no voltage (the eye is much more sensitive to variations in the dark state than the bright state). These devices can also be operated between parallel polarizers, in which case the bright and dark states are reversed. The voltage-off dark state in this configuration appears blotchy, however, because of small variations of thickness across the device.

Both the liquid crystal material and the alignment layer material contain ionic compounds. If an electric field of one particular polarity is a

pplied for a long period of time, this ionic material is attracted to the surfaces and degrades the device performance. This is avoided either by applying an alternating current or by reversing the polarity of the electric field as the device is addressed (the response of the liquid crystal layer is identical, regardless of the polarity of the applied field).

When a large number of pixels are needed in a display, it is not technically possible to drive each directly since then each pixel would require independent electrodes. Instead, the display is multiplexed. In a multiplexed display, electr

odes on one side of the display are grouped and wired together (typically in columns), and each group gets its own voltage source. On the other side, the electrodes are also grouped (typically in rows), with each group getting a voltage sink. The groups are designed so each pixel has a unique, unshared combination of source and sink. The electronics, or the software driving the electronics then turns on sinks in sequence,

and drives sources for the pixels of each sink.

Reflective twisted nematic liquid crystal display.

1. Polarizing filter film with a vertical axis to polarize light as it enters.
2. Glass substrate with ITO electrodes. The shapes of these electrodes will de termine the shapes that will appear when the LCD is turned ON. Vertical ridges etched on the surface are smooth.
3. Twisted nematic liquid crystal.
4. Glass substrate with common electrode film (ITO) with horizontal ridges to line up with the horizontal filter.
5. Polarizing filter film with a horizontal a xis to block/pass light.
6. Reflective surface to send light back to viewer. (In a backlit LCD, this layer is replaced with a light source.)

Specifications

Important factors to consider when evaluating an LCD monitor:

• Resolution: The horizontal and vertical screen size expressed in pixels (e.g., 1024x768). Unlike CRT monitors, LCD monitors have a native-supported resolution for best display effect.
• Dot pitch: The distance between the centers of two adjacent pixels. The smaller the dot pitch size, the less granularity is present, resulting in a sharper image. Dot pitch may be the same both vertically and horizontally, or different (less common).
• Viewable size: The size of an LCD panel measured on the diagonal (more specifically known as active display area).
• Response time: The minimum time necessary to change a pixel's color or brightness. Response time is also divided into rise and fall time. For LCD monitors, this is measured in btb (black to black) or gtg (gray to gray). These different types of measurements make comparison difficult. A r esponse time of <16ms id="cite_ref-0"> class="reference"> and the difference between response times below 10ms becomes imperceptible due to limitations of the human eye.
• Refresh rate: The number of times per second in which the monitor draws the data it is being given. Since activated LCD pixels do not flash on/off between frames, LCD monitors exhibit no refresh-induce d flicker, no matter how low the refresh rate. Many high-end LCD televisions now have a 120 or 240 Hz (current and former NTSC countries) or 100 or 200 Hz (PAL/SECAM countries) refresh rate. The rate of 120 was chosen as the least common multiple of 24 frame/s (cinema) and 30 frame/s (NTSC TV), and allows for less distortion when movies are viewed due to the elimination of telecine (3:2 pulldown). For PAL at 25 frame/s, 100 or 200 Hz is used as a fractional compromise of the least common multiple of 600 (24 x 25). Until a 600 Hz refresh rate becomes available, PAL video will speed up cinema by a small percentage (current ly 1 to 4 percent). These higher refresh rates are most effective from a 24p-source video output (e.g. Blu-ray Disc), and/or scenes of fast motion.
• Matrix type: Active TFT or Passive.
• Viewing angle: (coll., more specifically known as viewing direction).
• Color support: How many types of colors are supported (coll., more specifically known as color gamut).
• Brightness: The amount of light emitted from the display (coll., more specifically known as luminance).
• Contrast ratio: The ratio of the intensity of the brightest bright to the darkest dark.
• Aspect ratio: The ratio of the width to the height (for example, 4:3, 5:4, 16:9 or 16:10).
• Input ports (e.g., DVI, VGA, LVDS, DisplayPort, or even S-Video and HDMI).
• Gamma correction

History Of LCD :

• 1888: Friedrich Reinitzer (1858-1927) discovers the liquid crystalline nature of cholesterol extracted from carrots (that is, two melting points and generation of colors) and published his findings at a meeting of the Vienna Chemical Society on May 3, 1888 (F. Reinitzer: Beiträge zur Kenntniss des Cholesterins, Monatshefte für Chemie (Wien) 9, 421-441 (1888))^.

• 1904: Otto Lehmann publishes his work "Flüssige Kristalle" (Liquid Crystals).

• 1911: Charles Mauguin first experiments of liquids crystals confined between plates in thin layers.

• 1922: Georges Friedel describes the structure and properties of liquid crystals and classified them in 3 types (nematics, smectics and cholesterics).

• 1936: The Marconi Wireless Telegraph company patents the first practical application of the technology, "The Liquid Crystal Light Valve".

• 1962: The first major English language publication on the subject "Molecular Structure and Properties of Liquid Crystals", by Dr. George W. Gray.

• 1962: Richard Williams of RCA found that liquid crystals had some interesting electro-optic characteristics and he realized an electro-optical effect by generating stripe-patterns in a thin layer of liquid crystal material by the application of a voltage. This effect is based on an electro-hydrodynamic instability forming what is now called “Williams domains” inside the liquid crystal.

• 1964: George H. Heilmeier, then working in the RCA laboratories on the effect discovered by Williams realized the switching of colors by field-induced realignment of dichroic dyes in a homeotropically oriented liquid crystal. Practical problems with this new electro-optical effect made Heilmeier to continue work on scattering effects in liquid crystals and finally the realization of the first operational liquid crystal display based on what he called the dynamic scattering mode (DSM). Application of a voltage to a DSM display switches the initially clear transparent liquid crystal layer into a milky turbid state. DSM displays could be operated in transmissive and in reflective mode but they required a considerable current to flow for their operation.^[8][9][10] George H. Heilmeier was inducted in the National Inventors Hall of Fame and credited with the invention of LCD.

• 1960s: Pioneering work on liquid crystals was undertaken in the late 1960s by the UK's Royal Radar Establishment at Malvern, England. The team at RRE supported ongoing work by George Gray and his team at the University of Hull who ultimately discovered the cyanobiphenyl liquid crystals (which had correct stability and temperature properties for application in LCDs).

• 1970: On December 4, 1970, the twisted nematic field effect in liquid crystals was filed for patent by Hoffmann-LaRoche in Switzerland, (Swiss patent No. 532 261) with Wolfgang Helfrich and Martin Schadt (then working for the Central Research Laboratories) listed as inventors. Hoffmann-La Roche then licensed the invention to the Swiss manufacturer Brown, Boveri & Cie who produced displays for wrist watches during the 1970s and also to Japanese electronics industry which soon produced the first digital quartz wrist watches with TN-LCDs and numerous other products. James Fergason while working with Sardari Arora and Alfred Saupe at Kent State University Liquid Crystal Institute filed an identical patent in the USA on April 22, 1971. In 1971 the company of Fergason ILIXCO (now LXD Incorporated) produced the first LCDs based on the TN-effect, which soon superseded the poor-quality DSM types due to improvements of lower operating voltages and lower power consumption.
• 1972: The first active-matrix liquid crystal display panel was produced in the United States by T. Peter Brody^.
• 2007: In the 4Q of 2007 for the first time LCD televisions surpassed CRT units in worldwide sales.
• 2008: LCD TVs become the majority with a 50% market share of the 200 million TVs forecast to ship globally in 2008 according to Display Bank.

A detailed description of the origins and the complex history of liquid crystal displays from the perspective of an insider during the early days has been published by Joseph A. Castellano in "Liquid Gold, The Story of Liquid Crystal Displays and the Creation of an Industry". Another report on the origins and history of LCD from a different perspective has been published by Hiroshi Kawamoto, available at the IEEE History Center.

Color displays

In color LCDs each individual pixel is divided into three cells, or subpixels, which are colored red, green, and blue, respectively, by additional filters (pigment filters, dye filters and metal oxide filters). Each subpixel can be controlled independently to yield thousands or millions of possible colors for each pixel. CRT monitors employ a similar 'subpixel' structures via phosphors, although the electron beam employed in CRTs do not hit exact 'subpixels'.

Color components may be arrayed in various pixel geometries,

depending on the monitor's usage. If the software knows which type of geometry is being used in a given LCD, this can be used to increase the apparent resolution of

the monitor through subpixel rendering. This technique is especially useful for text anti-aliasing.

To reduce smudging in a moving picture when pixels do not respond quickly enough to color changes, so-called pixel overdrive may be used.

Passive-matrix and active-matrix addressed LCDs

LCDs with a small number of segments, such as those used in digital watches and pocket calculators, have individual electrical contacts for each segment. An external dedicated circuit supplies an electric charge to control each segment. This display structure is unwieldy for more than a few display elements.

Small monochrome displays such as those found in personal organizers, or older laptop screens have a passive-matrix structure employing super-twisted nematic (STN) or double-layer STN (DSTN) technology—the latter of which addresses a color-shifting problem with the former—and color-STN (CSTN)—wherein color is added by using an internal filter. Each row or column of the display has a single electrical circuit. The pixels are addressed one at a time by row and column addresses. This type of display is called passive-matrix addressed because the pixel must retain its state between refreshes without the b

enefit of a steady electrical charge. As the number of pixels (and, correspondingly, columns and rows) increases, this type of display becomes less feasible. Very slow response times and poor contrast are typical of passive-matrix addressed LCDs.

High-resolution color displays such as modern LCD computer monitors and t

elevisions use an active matrix structure. A matrix of thin-film tran

A general purpose alphanumeric LCD, with two lines of 16 characters.

sistors (TFTs) is added to the polarizing and color filters. Each pixel has its own dedicated transistor, allowing each column line to access one pixel. When a row line is activated, all of the column lines are connected to a row of pixels and the correct voltage is driven onto all of the column lines. The row line is then deactivated and the next row line is activated. All of the row lines are activated in sequence during a refresh operation. Active-matrix addressed displays look "brighter" and "sharper" than passive-matrix addressed displays of the same size, and generally have quicker response times, p

roducing much better images.

Active matrix technologies

Twisted nematic (TN)

Twisted nematic displays contain liquid crystal elements which twist and untwist at varying degrees to allow light to pass through. When no voltage is applied to a TN liquid crystal cell, the light is polarized to pass through the cell. In proportion to the voltage applied, the LC cells twist up to 90 degrees changing the polarization and blocking the light's path. By properly adjusting the level of the voltage almost any grey level or transmission can be achieved.

In-plane switching (IPS)

In-plane switching is an LCD tec

hnology which aligns the liquid crystal cells in a horizontal direction. In this method, the electrical field is applied through each end of the crystal, but this requires two transistors for each pixel instead of the single transistor needed for a standard thin-film transistor (TFT) display. This results in blocking more transmission area, thus requiring a brighter backlight, which will consume more power, making this type

of display less desirable for notebook computers.

Advanced fringe field switching (AFFS)

Known as fringe field switching (FFS) until 2003, advanced fringe field switching is a similar technology to IPS or S-IPS offering superior performance and color gamut besides high luminosity. AFFS is developed by Boe Hydis Displays, Korea.

AFFS-applied notebook applications minimiz

e color distortion while maintaining its superior wide viewing angle for a professional display. Color shift and deviation caused by light leakage is corrected by optimizing the white gamut which also enhances white/grey reproduction.

As of 2008, Hitachi acquired AFFS license to manufacture high end panels in their product line. Boe Hydis suspended their production of high

quality displays; however, the company still advertises the benefits of the technology.

Vertical alignment (VA)

Vertical alignment displays are a form of LC displays in which the liquid crystal material naturally exists in a vertical state removing the need for extra transistors (as in IPS). When no voltage is applied, the liquid crystal cell remains perpendicular to the substrate creating a black display. When voltage is applied, the liquid crystal cells

shift to a horizontal position, parallel to the substrate, a

llowing light to pass through and create a white display. VA liquid crystal displays provide some of the same advantages as IPS panels, particularly an improved viewing angle and improved black level.

Blue Phase mode

Blue phase LCDs do not require an LC top layer. Blue phase LCDs are relatively new to the market,and very expensive because of the low volume

of production. They provide a higher refresh rate than normal LCDs, but normal LCDs are still cheaper to make and actually provide better colors and a sharper image.

Quality Control

Some LCD panels have defective transistors, causing permanently lit or unlit pixels which are commonly referred toas stuck pixels or dead pixels respectively. Unlike integrated circuits (ICs), LCD panels with a few defective pixels are usually still usable. It is economically prohibitive to discard a panel with just a few defective pixels because LCD panels are much larger than ICs. Manufacturers' policies for the acceptable number of defective pixels for vary greatly. At one point, Samsung held a zero-tolerance policy for LCD monitors sold in Korea.Currently, though, Samsung adheres to the less restrictive ISO 13406-2 standard. Other companies have been known to tolerate as many as 11 dead pixels in their policies. Dead pixel policies are often hotly debated between manufacturers and customers. To regulate the acceptability of defects and to protect the end user, ISO released the ISO 13406-2 standard. However, not every LCD manufacturer conforms to the ISO standard and the ISO standard is quite often interpreted in different ways.

LCD panels are more likely to have defects than most ICs due to their larger size. In the example to the right, a 300 mm SVGA LCD has 8 defects and a 150 mm wafer has only 3 defects. However, 134 of the 137 dies on the wafer will be acceptable, whereas rejection of the LCD panel would be a 0% yield. Due to competition between manufacturers quality control has been improved. An SVGA LCD panel with 4 defective pixels is usually considered defective and customers can request an exchange for a new one. Some manufacturers, notably in South Korea where some of the largest LCD panel manufacturers, such as LG, are located, now have "zero defective pixel guarantee", which is an extra screening process which can t

hen determine "A" and "B" grade panels. Many manufacturers would replace a product even with one defective pixel. Even where such guarantees do not exist, the location of defective pixels is important. A display with only a few defective pixels may be unacceptable if the defective pixels are near each other. Manufacturers may also relax their replacement criteria when defective pixels are in the center of the viewing area.

LCD panels also have defects known as mura, which look like a small-scale crack with very small changes in luminance or color. It is most visible in dark or black areas of displayed scenes. Defects in various LCD panel components can cause mura effect

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Hardware Computer

A Computer consist of CPU or Central Processing Unit or usually we just call it Processor because main part of unit is processor, Cable, Monitor or Display, Mouse and keyboard.

A central processing unit (CPU) is an electronic circuit that can execute computer programs. This broad definition can easily be applied to many early computers that existed long before the term "CPU" ever came into widespread usage. The term itself and its initialism have been in use in the computer industry at least since the early 1960s (Weik 1961). The form, design and implementation of CPUs have changed dramatically since the earliest examples, but their fundamental operation has remained much the same.

Early CPUs were custom-designed as a part of a larger, sometimes one-of-a-kind, computer. However, this costly method of designing custom CPUs for a particular application has largely given way to the development of mass-produced processors that are suited for one or many purposes. This standardization trend generally began in the era of discrete transistor mainframes and minicomputers and has rapidly accelerated with the popularization of the integrated circuit (IC). The IC has allowed increasingly complex CPUs to be designed and manufactured to tolerances on the order of nanometers. Both the miniaturization and standardization of CPUs have increased the presence of these digital devices in modern life far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines. Modern microprocessors appear in everything from automobiles to cell phones to children's toys.

In computing, a mouse (plural mouses, mice, or mouse devices) is a pointing device that functions by detecting two-dimensional motion relative to its supporting surface. Physically, a mouse consists of an object held under one of the user's hands, with one or more buttons. It sometimes features other elements, such as "wheels", which allow the user to perform various system-dependent operations, or extra buttons or features can add more control or dimensional input. The mouse's motion typically translates into the motion of a pointer on a display, which allows for fine control of a Graphical User Interface.

The name mouse, originated at the Stanford Research Institute, derives from the resemblance of early models (which had a cord attached to the rear part of the device, suggesting the idea of a tail) to the common mouse.

The first marketed integrated mouse – shipped as a part of a computer and intended for personal computer navigation – came with the Xerox 8010 Star Information System in 1981. However, the mouse remained relatively obscure until the appearance of the Apple Macintosh; in 1984 a prominent PC columnist commented the release of this new computer with a mouse: “There is no evidence that people want to use these things.”

A mouse now comes with most computers and many other varieties can be bought separately.

A visual display unit, often called simply a monitor or display, is a piece of electrical equipment which displays images generated from the video output of devices such as computers, without producing a permanent record. Most newer monitors typically consist of a TFT LCD, with older monitors based around a cathode ray tube (CRT). The monitor comprises the display device, simple circuitry to generate and format a picture from video sent by the signals source, and usually an enclosure. Within the signal source, either as an integral section or a modular component, there is a display adapter to generate video in a format compatible with the monitor.
Performance measurements

The performance parameters of a monitor are:

1. Luminance, measured in candelas per square meter (cd/m²).
2. Viewable image size, measured diagonally. For CRTs the viewable size is typically one inch (25 mm) smaller than the tube itself.
3. Display resolution, the number of distinct pixels in each dimension that can be displayed. Maximum resolution is limited by dot pitch.
4. Dot pitch, describes the distance between pixels of the same color in millimeters. In general, the smaller the dot pitch (e.g. 0.24 mm), the sharper the picture will appear.
5. Refresh rate, the number of times in a second that a display is illuminated. Maximum refresh rate is limited by response time.
6. Response time, the amount of time a pixel in a monitor takes to go from active (black) to inactive (white) and back to active (black) again. It is measured in milliseconds (ms). Lower numbers mean faster transitions and therefore fewer visible image artifacts.
7. Contrast ratio, the contrast ratio is defined as the ratio of the luminosity of the brightest color (white) to that of the darkest color (black) that the monitor is capable of producing.
8. Power consumption, measured in watts (W).
9. Aspect ratios, which is the horizontal size compared to the vertical size, e.g. 4:3 is the standard aspect ratio, so that a screen with a width of 1024 pixels will have a height of 768 pixels. A widescreen display can have an aspect ratio of 16:9, which means a display that is 1024 pixels wide will have a height of 576 pixels.
10. Viewing angle, the ability to be seen from an angle without excessive degradation to the image, measured in degrees horizontally and vertically.

Cable in computer is used for connected part of the computer, we usually call it port I/O. Memory-mapped I/O (not to be confused with memory-mapped file I/O) uses the same address bus to address both memory and I/O devices, and the CPU instructions used to access the memory are also used for accessing devices. In order to accommodate the I/O devices, areas of CPU's addressable space must be reserved for I/O rather than memory. The reservation might be temporary—the Commodore 64 could bank switch between its I/O devices and regular memory—or permanent. Each I/O device monitors the CPU's address bus and responds to any CPU's access of device-assigned address space, connecting the data bus to a desirable device's hardware register.

Port-mapped I/O uses a special class of CPU instructions specifically for performing I/O. This is generally found on Intel microprocessors, specifically the IN and OUT instructions which can read and write a single byte to an I/O device. I/O devices have a separate address space from general memory, either accomplished by an extra "I/O" pin on the CPU's physical interface, or an entire bus dedicated to I/O.

A device's direct memory access (DMA) is not affected by those CPU-to-device communication methods, especially it is not affected by memory mapping. This is because, by definition, DMA is a memory-to-device communication method, that bypasses the CPU.

Hardware interrupt is yet another communication method between CPU and peripheral devices. However, it is always treated separately for a number of reasons. It is device-initiated, as opposed to above CPU-initiated methods. It is also unidirectional, as information flows only from device to CPU. Lastly, each interrupt line carries itself only one bit of information with a fixed meaning, namely "there is an interrupt".

In computing, a keyboard is an input device, partially modeled after the typewriter keyboard, which uses an arrangement of buttons or keys, which act as electronic switches. A keyboard typically has characters engraved or printed on the keys and each press of a key typically corresponds to a single written symbol. However, to produce some symbols requires pressing and holding several keys simultaneously or in sequence. While most keyboard keys produce letters, numbers or signs (characters), other keys or simultaneous key presses can produce actions or computer commands.

In normal usage, the keyboard is used to type text or numbers into a word processor, text editor or other program. In a modern computer, the interpretation of keypresses is generally left to the software. A computer keyboard distinguishes each physical key from every other and reports all keypresses to the controlling software. Keyboards are also used for computer gaming, either with regular keyboards or by using special gaming keyboards, which can expedite frequently used keystroke combinations. A keyboard is also used to give commands to the operating system of a computer, such as Windows' Control-Alt-Delete combination, which brings up a task window or shuts down the machine.

TYPES OF KEYBOARDS

1. QWERTY Keyboard - Developed by Sholes in 1868 and is now the official standard of computer keyboards [ISO9995]. The layout of the QWERTY keyboard was designed for two finger typing and was designed to help prevent stuck keys. Now with new technology, stuck keys are no longer an issue; and with the position of the keys, the hands are held close together helping to cause Carpal Tunnel Syndrome. Given all the above problems, this is the most widely used keyboard because the lack of options, can be used without training, is used because of the difficulty of having to teach a different keyboard, and is cheap and easy to find.
2. Dvorak Keyboard - Developed by Dr. August Dvorak in 1936 as a solution to the outdated QWERTY keyboard. The layout of the keys on this keyboard make it easier and faster to type on when compared with other keyboards.
3. Chiclet Keyboard - Very small keyboard that was introduced with the PC Jr. with small keys spread out.